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2024-03-07 18:59:26

GMOs_百度百科

_百度百科网页新闻贴吧知道网盘图片视频地图文库资讯采购百科百度首页登录注册进入词条全站搜索帮助首页秒懂百科特色百科知识专题加入百科百科团队权威合作下载百科APP个人中心收藏查看我的收藏0有用+10GMOs播报讨论上传视频转基因作物本词条由“科普中国”科学百科词条编写与应用工作项目审核。GMOs:Genetically modified organisms（即转基因作物）。转基因生物通常指通过基因工程技术将目的基因导入到受体生物的基因组后能够稳定遗传的新生物。通过外源基因的表达, 受体生物会表现出新的性状, 如抗虫、抗除草剂、抗旱和抗病等。长期以来, 我国十分重视转基因生物研究、应用与安全管理。2001年我国颁布的《农业转基因生物安全管理条例》, 明确定义农业转基因生物是指利用基因工程技术改变基因组构成, 用于农业生产或者农产品加工的动植物、微生物及其产品, 主要包括转基因动植物(含种子、种畜禽、水产苗种)和微生物、转基因动植物和微生物的产品、转基因农产品的直接加工品以及含有转基因动植物、微生物或者其产品成份的种子、种畜禽、水产苗种、农药、兽药、肥料和添加剂等产品。中文名转基因作物外文名GMOs领域生物技术食品种类番茄、棉花等检测方法核酸水平或蛋白质水平新性状抗虫、抗除草剂、抗旱和抗病等目录1转基因生物商业化现状2转基因生物及其产品主要检测技术▪基于蛋白质水平的检测技术▪基于核酸水平的检测技术与策略▪核酸检测新技术转基因生物商业化现状播报编辑自首例转基因番茄‘FLAVR SAVR’于1994年在美国批准商业化以来, 全球转基因作物种植面积持续增长, 据ISAAA公布的数据, 截止2012年底全球转基因作物种植总面积已达到1.7亿公顷, 较1996年增长了94倍多。种植面积排名前十的国家都超过了百万公顷, 其中美国为69.5百万公顷, 占40.8%; 其次是巴西, 占21.5%; 阿根廷占14.03%; 加拿大占6.8%; 印度占6.3%; 我国为400万公顷, 占2.4%, 位居第六。2012年共计59个国家和地区生产和应用转基因作物, 涉及25种作物、319个转基因事件。预计在未来的若干年里, 转基因的种植面积和商业化进程会持续增长, 并会对社会可持续发展产生深远影响。转基因生物及其产品主要检测技术播报编辑从分子生物学水平来看, 转基因检测是针对其转入的外源基因后的特异性DNA序列和其表达的蛋白质展开的。因此, 转基因检测方法可以分为基于蛋白质水平的检测方法和基于核酸水平的检测方法两大类。基于蛋白质水平的检测技术蛋白质检测技术都是基于免疫学的原理, 即转基因生物表达的特定蛋白可作为抗原和抗体特异性结合，是一种直观、快速的检测方法。酶联免疫吸附法和侧向流动免疫测定是两种最主要的基于蛋白的转基因产品检测方法。酶联免疫吸附法是一种将免疫反应和酶的高效催化反应结合的检测方法。外源目的蛋白与抗体结合后, 再结合酶标抗体, 加入底物后通过酶促反应形成有色物质, 就可根据颜色变化判断是否为转基因外源蛋白，并计算其含量。近年来, 研究者已经建立了不同转基因生物的ELISA检测方法, Kim等(2010)建立了一种ELISA方法检测韩国转基因辣椒Subicho不同组织中bar基因编码的乙酰转移酶和npt II基因编码的新霉素磷酸转移酶；Tan等(2013)发明了一种三明治式ELISA方法(sandwich ELISA), 可以检测转基因棉花中的胰蛋白酶抑制因子CpTI。此外, 全球各大公司也开发了各种商业化的ELISA转基因生物检测试剂盒检测不同外源基因表达的蛋白，其检测极限最高可达0.1%。侧向流动型免疫试纸同样基于抗原抗体特异性结合的原理, 以硝化纤维为固相载体, 在抗体上联结显色剂并固定在试纸条内, 将试纸条一端放入含有外源蛋白的组织提取液中, 通过毛细管作用使提取液向上流动, 抗体与外源蛋白结合则会呈现颜色反应, 一般5~10 min可以获得检测结果。Liu等(2013)发明了一种胶体金免疫试纸条, 可成功检测转基因牛牛乳中的人乳铁蛋白。很多转基因检测侧向流动型免疫测定试纸条已经商业化应用。基于核酸水平的检测技术与策略由于核酸分子, 特别是DNA分子的稳定性强, 基于核酸的检测方法已成为转基因生物检测的主要手段(张建中等2011), 主要的核酸检测技术包括定性PCR和实时荧光定量PCR。近年来, 已有大量文章报道了不同转基因生物品种的定性PCR和定量PCR检测方法(表4)。但无论使用定性还是定量PCR技术, 转基因产品检测都基本按照以下流程进行。(1)检测是否含转基因成分: 通过筛选PCR确定样品中是否含转基因作物的通用元件、标记基因等; (2)具体含有什么转基因作物品系: 通过构建特异性和品系特异性检测方法来鉴定转基因成分具体源于哪种特定的转基因品系; (3)转基因成分含量: 运用定量PCR的方法来测定样品中转基因成分的具体含量 [1]。核酸检测新技术随着转基因数量急剧增加, 开发多靶标、高通量的PCR检测方法日益重要, 各种新型复合PCR方法应运而生, 包括复合PCR、兼并复合PCR和微滴复合PCR等。复合PCR是指在一个反应体系中, 同时加入多对引物, 扩增不同的特异性片段, 最后通过凝胶电泳分离这些片段。Lu等(2010)成功建立了能同时检测6种常见转基因元件多重PCR, 分别针对35S启动子、NOS启动子和终止子、nptII (neomycin phosphotransferase, 新霉素磷酸转移酶基因)、CP4epsps (5-enol form pyruvic acid-shikimic acid-3-phosphate synthase, 5-烯醇式丙酮酰-莽草酸-3-磷酸合酶)基因和pat (phosphinothricin Nacetyltransferase, 草丁膦转移酶)基因。兼并复合PCR (degenerate MPCR)是通过设计兼并PCR引物来检测一种针对同一性状基因或一类性状基因的同源核苷酸序列的新型复合PCR。Guo等(2012)建立了一种四重兼并引物PCR方法, 同时扩增转基因作物主要使用的8个外源目的基因, 理论上可覆盖90余种转基因作物。微滴PCR(microdroplet PCR)技术可将单个DNA分子被分配到纳升级(0.5 fL~0.5 nL)的微滴中进行扩增, 1uL乳化剂中能形成约107个反应, 可极大提高扩增通量, 减低复合PCR中多对引物和多模板间的干扰。Guo等(2011)发明了一种微滴聚合酶链式反应-毛细管凝胶电泳分析系统(MPIC), 同时检测了9个转基因品种的24个靶标, 检测灵敏度可达39个拷贝。DNA芯片技术日趋成熟, 使用DNA芯片进行转基因生物的高通量检测已得到商业化应用。如Nesvold等(2005)设计了一种基因芯片用于检测单个未知转基因生物。新发展的Tilling芯片含有高密度的覆瓦式的寡核苷酸探针, 能够高密度、高通量地从全基因组水平上对转基因生物进行分析,已经用于未知或者非法转基因生物的检测。二代测序技术(next-generation sequencing, NGS)即高通量测序, 一次实验可以读取1 G到14 G碱基数。现有的技术平台主要有454焦磷酸测序、Solexa测序、SOLiD测序、Polonator测序和HeliScope测序技术等(Mardis 2008)。二代测序技术是在传统测序技术上飞跃性的进步, 在转基因检测中将具有广阔的应用前景, 如Teng等(2009)通过454焦磷酸测序, 并基于计算机减法算法建立了一种未知转基因拟南芥的检测方法, 为未知转基因生物的检测提供了一种可能。等温扩增技术是近年发展起来的快速核酸检测技术, 扩增过程不需要温度循环, 较PCR技术有快速、低成本、灵敏等优点。核酸等温扩增技术有很多种, 其中环介导等温扩增技术(loop-mediated isothermal amplification, LAMP)已较多的应用在转基因检测中。LAMP技术通过设计能识别靶标序列6个区域的2对引物, 在Bst聚合酶作用下, 经过恒温(60~65 ℃)约40 min即可完成核酸扩增(Notomi等2000)。Lee等(2009)通过LAMP方法检测到了转基因油菜和大豆中的35S启动子和NOS终止子, 灵敏度可达0.01%转基因含量; Chen等(2011)则发明了一种可视化的LAMP技术, 可通过肉眼直接判断样品中是否含有转基因产品; Kiddle等(2012)则通过将一种荧光报告基团BART与LAMP技术联用, 可以检测到0.1%转基因含量, 提高了LAMP检测的灵敏度。数字PCR (digital PCR)是近几年新发展起的一种核酸精确定量技术, 该技术是通过将微量样品大倍数稀释和细分, 直至每个细分试样中所含有的待测分子数不超过1个后, 再将所有细分试样同时在相同条件下进行PCR扩增, 之后对细分试样逐个进行计数, 从而判断样品的起始数量。数字PCR是一种绝对测量方法, 无需建立标准曲线, 并且检测的灵敏度高达1.85拷贝·微升-1(Leonardo等2011)。数字PCR主要有三类平台, 分别是基于集成流体通路(IFC)芯片技术的数字PCR (chamber 数字PCR)、微滴式数字PCR和基于亲疏水芯片和通道技术的数字PCR。数字PCR已经应用于转基因生物检测, 特别是转基因标准物质的量值测定。如Corbisier等(2010)使用数字PCR技术对转基因玉米MON810制备的欧盟标准物质的内、外源基因进行了绝对定量分析, 其结果和欧盟的定值结果一致; Burns等(2010)分析了数字PCR在转基因检测中的应用, 认为该技术非常适用于极低拷贝转基因样品定量和标准物质的定值 [2]。新手上路成长任务编辑入门编辑规则本人编辑我有疑问内容质疑在线客服官方贴吧意见反馈投诉建议举报不良信息未通过词条申诉投诉侵权信息封禁查询与解封©2024 Baidu 使用百度前必读 | 百科协议 | 隐私政策 | 百度百科合作平台 | 京ICP证030173号京公网安备110000020000

Genetically modified organism (GMO) | Definition, Examples, & Facts | Britannica

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Genetically Modified Organisms

tically Modified OrganismsEducationSign InMenuDonateENCYCLOPEDIC ENTRYENCYCLOPEDIC ENTRYGenetically Modified OrganismsGenetically Modified OrganismsA genetically modified organism contains DNA that has been altered using genetic engineering. Genetically modified animals are mainly used for research purposes, while genetically modified plants are common in today’s food supply.Grades5 - 8SubjectsBiology, Ecology, Genetics, HealthImageGMO SalmonPhoto of a genetically engineered Salmon. Created so that it continuously produces growth hormones and can be sold as a full size fish after 18 months instead of 3 years.Photograph by Paulo Oliveira/Alamy Stock PhotoArticleVocabularyA genetically modified organism (GMO) is an animal, plant, or microbe whose DNA has been altered using genetic engineering techniques.For thousands of years, humans have used breeding methods to modify organisms. Corn, cattle, and even dogs have been selectively bred over generations to have certain desired traits. Within the last few decades, however, modern advances in biotechnology have allowed scientists to directly modify the DNA of microorganisms, crops, and animals.Conventional methods of modifying plants and animals—selective breeding and crossbreeding—can take a long time. Moreover, selective breeding and crossbreeding often produce mixed results, with unwanted traits appearing alongside desired characteristics. The specific targeted modification of DNA using biotechnology has allowed scientists to avoid this problem and improve the genetic makeup of an organism without unwanted characteristics tagging along.Most animals that are GMOs are produced for use in laboratory research. These animals are used as “models” to study the function of specific genes and, typically, how the genes relate to health and disease. Some GMO animals, however, are produced for human consumption. Salmon, for example, has been genetically engineered to mature faster, and the U.S. Food and Drug Administration has stated that these fish are safe to eat.GMOs are perhaps most visible in the produce section. The first genetically engineered plants to be produced for human consumption were introduced in the mid-1990s. Today, approximately 90 percent of the corn, soybeans, and sugar beets on the market are GMOs. Genetically engineered crops produce higher yields, have a longer shelf life, are resistant to diseases and pests, and even taste better. These benefits are a plus for both farmers and consumers. For example, higher yields and longer shelf life may lead to lower prices for consumers, and pest-resistant crops means that farmers don’t need to buy and use as many pesticides to grow quality crops. GMO crops can thus be kinder to the environment than conventionally grown crops.Genetically modified foods do cause controversy, however. Genetic engineering typically changes an organism in a way that would not occur naturally. It is even common for scientists to insert genes into an organism from an entirely different organism. This raises the possible risk of unexpected allergic reactions to some GMO foods. Other concerns include the possibility of the genetically engineered foreign DNA spreading to non-GMO plants and animals. So far, none of the GMOs approved for consumption have caused any of these problems, and GMO food sources are subject to regulations and rigorous safety assessments.In the future, GMOs are likely to continue playing an important role in biomedical research. GMO foods may provide better nutrition and perhaps even be engineered to contain medicinal compounds to enhance human health. If GMOs can be shown to be both safe and healthful, consumer resistance to these products will most likely diminish.CreditsMedia CreditsThe audio, illustrations, photos, and videos are credited beneath the media asset, except for promotional images, which generally link to another page that contains the media credit. The Rights Holder for media is the person or group credited.DirectorTyson Brown, National Geographic SocietyAuthorNational Geographic SocietyProduction ManagersGina Borgia, National Geographic SocietyJeanna Sullivan, National Geographic SocietyProgram SpecialistsSarah Appleton, National Geographic Society, National Geographic SocietyMargot Willis, National Geographic SocietySpecialist, Content ProductionClint ParksProducerAndré Gabrielli, National Geographic SocietyotherLast UpdatedOctober 19, 2023User PermissionsFor information on user permissions, please read our Terms of Service. If you have questions about how to cite anything on our website in your project or classroom presentation, please contact your teacher. They will best know the preferred format. When you reach out to them, you will need the page title, URL, and the date you accessed the resource.MediaIf a media asset is downloadable, a download button appears in the corner of the media viewer. If no button appears, you cannot download or save the media.TextText on this page is printable and can be used according to our Terms of Service.InteractivesAny interactives on this page can only be played while you are visiting our website. 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转基因生物 - 知乎

转基因生物 - 知乎首页知乎知学堂发现等你来答切换模式登录/注册转基因生物「转基因生物」（Transgenic Organisms）并不严谨，只是被人们熟知的称谓而已，更为严谨的名称应该是「基因改良生物」（genetically modified organism，GM…查看全部内容关注话题管理分享百科讨论精华视频等待回答详细内容简介转基因生物（Transgenic Organisms）并不严谨，只是被人们熟知的称谓而已，更为严谨的名称应该是基因改良生（genetically modified organism，GMO) 。由世卫组织、联合国粮农组织认定的转基因生物、基因改良生物，是指不通过交配、基因重组等自然途径，而是通过人工的操作途径，使得基因、遗传物质发生定向或随机改变的生物体，包括了动物、植物、微生物。比如转基因木瓜、转基因抗虫棉、转基因三文鱼等。在分子生物学发展的初期阶段，转基因生物是指人们通过转基因技」，将不会通过自然交配/基因重组的其它生物基因，转入生物体后，培育而成的全新生物。它的英文名为“Transgenic Organisms”。历史最早的转基因分子，是1972年，Paul Berg将猴病毒的DNA与λ病毒的DNA结合后，创造的新分子。Paul Berg（1926-今）最早的转基因微生物是1973年，Herbert Boyer和Stanley Cohen把一种抗卡那霉素的基因插入质粒中，然后诱导其他细菌掺入质粒，并让那些深入质粒的新细菌在卡那霉素培养基内成功繁殖。Herbert Boye（1936-今）Stanley Cohen（1935-今）最早的转基因动物，是1974年，Rudolf Jaenisch通过将外源DNA引入胚胎，从而创造了一只转基因小鼠。[1]Rudolf Jaenisch（1942-今）最早的转基因植物，是1983年，Michael W. Bevan等人将目的基因插入到经过改造的T-DNA区，再借助农杆菌的感染实现外源基因向植物细胞的转移与整合，然后通过组织培养技术，再生出转基因植株。[2]Michael W. Bevan（1952-今）但是，随着分子生物学的不断发展，人们对基因的操作已经不再局限于基因「增加」，还包括了基因敲除、静默、突变、扩散等，单纯的「转基因生物」已经无法指代这些通过分子生物学技术创造出的新生物了。于是，人们创造了一个全新的名词「基因改良生物」（genetically modified organism，GMO) ，用以指代通过人为的、非自然的手段，对遗传物质进行修饰后，创造出的新生物体。但因为「转基因生物」流传甚广，于是就沿用至今。但学术领域最为严谨的称谓，应该是「基因改良生物」。[3]广义与狭义定义广义上，「转基因生物」/「基因改良生物」，可以指在非自然条件之下，所有基因/遗传物质发生改变的生物体。包括进入太空后被宇宙射线诱变的「太空番茄」、被敲除了抑癌基因的「基因缺失小鼠」、转入了胡萝卜素转化酶等基因的「黄金大米」，都可以称为「转基因生物」。“臭名昭著”的“黄金大米”狭义上，由世卫组织、联合国粮农组织认定的「转基因生物」，是指不通过交配、基因重组等自然途径，而是通过人工的操作途径，使得基因/遗传物质发生定向或随机改变的生物体。[4]应用目前比较成熟，并在部分地区进入市场的「转基因生物」，见下图：[5]截至目前，我国共批准发放7种转基因作物安全证书，分别是耐储存番茄、抗虫棉花、改变花色矮牵牛、抗病辣椒、抗病番木瓜、转植酸酶玉米和抗虫水稻。但实现大规模商业化生产的只有抗虫棉和抗病毒木瓜，抗病辣椒和耐储存番茄在生产上没被消费者接受，故未实现商业化种植，而抗虫水稻和植酸酶玉米没完成后续的品种审定，未进行商业化种植。[6]而在美国，早在2015年11月，转基因三文鱼便获FDA（美国食品药品监督管理局）批准养殖并进行产业化生产了。相比之下，虽然我国先于美国申请了「转基因鲤鱼」、「转基因奶牛」专利，但却因为种种原因，迟迟无法商业化。[7]百科摘录3在美国，大家吃不吃转基因食物？下的内容摘录菠萝因子杜克大学癌症生物学博士转基因生物（Genetically modified organisms, GMO）是指其遗传物质以非自然方式发生改变的植物、动物或微生物。通常所说的转基因食物是通过基因工程技术改造的农作物。知乎小知摘录于 2020-04-24对于转基因食品，你只需要关注这几点就够了！下的内容摘录摩尔云优选测评摩尔云优选(淘宝)专注于数码测评，优选好产品转基因生物(或转基因生物)是指植物、动物或微生物，其遗传物质(DNA)发生了某种自然界无法自发发生的变化。基因工程技术允许科学家将一个物种的基因插入另一个物种，以改善某些属性。例如，一段具有抗虫能力的细菌DNA可以被植入玉米植株中，这样玉米也会对昆虫产生抗性。因此，需要少用杀虫剂。在转基因植物中，科学家的主要目标是提高抗旱性，减少对农药的需求，增强对植物疾病的抵抗力。最终，目标是提高作物产量和质量。由转基因生物制成的食品被称为转基因食品。知乎小知摘录于 2020-04-24新闻 | 麻省维权人士和立法者对转基因标识法感到失望下的内容摘录夏冰雹2021 年度新知答主什么是转基因生物(GMO)? 转基因生物是植物、动物和微生物，它们的基因从其他植物、动物或微生物中转移。基因甚至可以在不相关的物种之间转移。这一过程不能通过自然或杂交育种方法完成(在杂交育种中，基因只能在相同物种之间转移)，只能在实验室里完成。因此，通过基因工程产生的食物叫做转基因食品。知乎小知摘录于 2020-04-24浏览量7.4 万讨论量100 帮助中心知乎隐私保护指引申请开通机构号联系我们举报中心涉未成年举报网络谣言举报涉企虚假举报更多关于知乎下载知乎知乎招聘知乎指南知乎协议更多京 ICP 证 110745 号 · 京 ICP 备 13052560 号 - 1 · 京公网安备 11010802020088 号 · 京网文[2022]2674-081 号 · 药品医疗器械网络信息服务备案（京）网药械信息备字（2022）第00334号 · 广播电视节目制作经营许可证:（京）字第06591号 · 服务热线：400-919-0001 · Investor Relations · © 2024 知乎北京智者天下科技有限公司版权所有 · 违法和不良信息举报：010-82716601 · 举报邮箱：jubao@zhihu.

Food, genetically modified

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Food, genetically modified

1 May 2014 | Q&A

These questions and answers have been prepared by WHO in response to questions and concerns from WHO Member State Governments with regard to the nature and safety of genetically modified food.

What are genetically modified (GM) organisms and GM foods?

Genetically modified organisms (GMOs) can be defined as organisms (i.e. plants, animals or microorganisms) in which the genetic material (DNA) has been altered in a way that does not occur naturally by mating and/or natural recombination. The technology is often called “modern biotechnology” or “gene technology”, sometimes also “recombinant DNA technology” or “genetic engineering”. It allows selected individual genes to be transferred from one organism into another, also between nonrelated species. Foods produced from or using GM organisms are often referred to as GM foods.

Why are GM foods produced?

GM foods are developed – and marketed – because there is some perceived advantage either to the producer or consumer of these foods. This is meant to translate into a product with a lower price, greater benefit (in terms of durability or nutritional value) or both. Initially GM seed developers wanted their products to be accepted by producers and have concentrated on innovations that bring direct benefit to farmers (and the food industry generally).

One of the objectives for developing plants based on GM organisms is to improve crop protection. The GM crops currently on the market are mainly aimed at an increased level of crop protection through the introduction of resistance against plant diseases caused by insects or viruses or through increased tolerance towards herbicides.

Resistance against insects is achieved by incorporating into the food plant the gene for toxin production from the bacterium Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt). This toxin is currently used as a conventional insecticide in agriculture and is safe for human consumption. GM crops that inherently produce this toxin have been shown to require lower quantities of insecticides in specific situations, e.g. where pest pressure is high. Virus resistance is achieved through the introduction of a gene from certain viruses which cause disease in plants. Virus resistance makes plants less susceptible to diseases caused by such viruses, resulting in higher crop yields.

Herbicide tolerance is achieved through the introduction of a gene from a bacterium conveying resistance to some herbicides. In situations where weed pressure is high, the use of such crops has resulted in a reduction in the quantity of the herbicides used.

Is the safety of GM foods assessed differently from conventional foods?

Generally consumers consider that conventional foods (that have an established record of safe consumption over the history) are safe. Whenever novel varieties of organisms for food use are developed using the traditional breeding methods that had existed before the introduction of gene technology, some of the characteristics of organisms may be altered, either in a positive or a negative way. National food authorities may be called upon to examine the safety of such conventional foods obtained from novel varieties of organisms, but this is not always the case.

In contrast, most national authorities consider that specific assessments are necessary for GM foods. Specific systems have been set up for the rigorous evaluation of GM organisms and GM foods relative to both human health and the environment. Similar evaluations are generally not performed for conventional foods. Hence there currently exists a significant difference in the evaluation process prior to marketing for these two groups of food.

The WHO Department of Food Safety and Zoonoses aims at assisting national authorities in the identification of foods that should be subject to risk assessment and to recommend appropriate approaches to safety assessment. Should national authorities decide to conduct safety assessment of GM organisms, WHO recommends the use of Codex Alimentarius guidelines (See the answer to Question 11 below).

How is a safety assessment of GM food conducted?

The safety assessment of GM foods generally focuses on: (a) direct health effects (toxicity), (b) potential to provoke allergic reaction (allergenicity); (c) specific components thought to have nutritional or toxic properties; (d) the stability of the inserted gene; (e) nutritional effects associated with genetic modification; and (f) any unintended effects which could result from the gene insertion.

What are the main issues of concern for human health?

While theoretical discussions have covered a broad range of aspects, the three main issues debated are the potentials to provoke allergic reaction (allergenicity), gene transfer and outcrossing.

Allergenicity

As a matter of principle, the transfer of genes from commonly allergenic organisms to non-allergic organisms is discouraged unless it can be demonstrated that the protein product of the transferred gene is not allergenic. While foods developed using traditional breeding methods are not generally tested for allergenicity, protocols for the testing of GM foods have been evaluated by the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) and WHO. No allergic effects have been found relative to GM foods currently on the market.

Gene transfer

Gene transfer from GM foods to cells of the body or to bacteria in the gastrointestinal tract would cause concern if the transferred genetic material adversely affects human health. This would be particularly relevant if antibiotic resistance genes, used as markers when creating GMOs, were to be transferred. Although the probability of transfer is low, the use of gene transfer technology that does not involve antibiotic resistance genes is encouraged.

Outcrossing

The migration of genes from GM plants into conventional crops or related species in the wild (referred to as “outcrossing”), as well as the mixing of crops derived from conventional seeds with GM crops, may have an indirect effect on food safety and food security. Cases have been reported where GM crops approved for animal feed or industrial use were detected at low levels in the products intended for human consumption. Several countries have adopted strategies to reduce mixing, including a clear separation of the fields within which GM crops and conventional crops are grown.

How is a risk assessment for the environment performed?

Environmental risk assessments cover both the GMO concerned and the potential receiving environment. The assessment process includes evaluation of the characteristics of the GMO and its effect and stability in the environment, combined with ecological characteristics of the environment in which the introduction will take place. The assessment also includes unintended effects which could result from the insertion of the new gene.

What are the issues of concern for the environment?

Issues of concern include: the capability of the GMO to escape and potentially introduce the engineered genes into wild populations; the persistence of the gene after the GMO has been harvested; the susceptibility of non-target organisms (e.g. insects which are not pests) to the gene product; the stability of the gene; the reduction in the spectrum of other plants including loss of biodiversity; and increased use of chemicals in agriculture. The environmental safety aspects of GM crops vary considerably according to local conditions.

Are GM foods safe?

Different GM organisms include different genes inserted in different ways. This means that individual GM foods and their safety should be assessed on a case-by-case basis and that it is not possible to make general statements on the safety of all GM foods.

GM foods currently available on the international market have passed safety assessments and are not likely to present risks for human health. In addition, no effects on human health have been shown as a result of the consumption of such foods by the general population in the countries where they have been approved. Continuous application of safety assessments based on the Codex Alimentarius principles and, where appropriate, adequate post market monitoring, should form the basis for ensuring the safety of GM foods.

How are GM foods regulated nationally?

The way governments have regulated GM foods varies. In some countries GM foods are not yet regulated. Countries which have legislation in place focus primarily on assessment of risks for consumer health. Countries which have regulatory provisions for GM foods usually also regulate GMOs in general, taking into account health and environmental risks, as well as control- and trade-related issues (such as potential testing and labelling regimes). In view of the dynamics of the debate on GM foods, legislation is likely to continue to evolve.

What kind of GM foods are on the market internationally?

GM crops available on the international market today have been designed using one of three basic traits: resistance to insect damage; resistance to viral infections; and tolerance towards certain herbicides. GM crops with higher nutrient content (e.g. soybeans increased oleic acid) have been also studied recently.

What happens when GM foods are traded internationally?

The Codex Alimentarius Commission (Codex) is the joint FAO/WHO intergovernmental body responsible for developing the standards, codes of practice, guidelines and recommendations that constitute the Codex Alimentarius, meaning the international food code. Codex developed principles for the human health risk analysis of GM foods in 2003.

Principles for the risk analysis of foods derived from modern biotechnology

The premise of these principles sets out a premarket assessment, performed on a caseby- case basis and including an evaluation of both direct effects (from the inserted gene) and unintended effects (that may arise as a consequence of insertion of the new gene) Codex also developed three Guidelines:

Guideline for the conduct of food safety assessment of foods derived from recombinant-DNA plants

Guideline for the conduct of food safety assessment of foods produced using recombinant-DNA microorganisms

Guideline for the conduct of food safety assessment of foods derived from recombinant-DNA animals

Codex principles do not have a binding effect on national legislation, but are referred to specifically in the Agreement on the Application of Sanitary and Phytosanitary Measures of the World Trade Organization (SPS Agreement), and WTO Members are encouraged to harmonize national standards with Codex standards. If trading partners have the same or similar mechanisms for the safety assessment of GM foods, the possibility that one product is approved in one country but rejected in another becomes smaller.

The Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety, an environmental treaty legally binding for its Parties which took effect in 2003, regulates transboundary movements of Living Modified Organisms (LMOs). GM foods are within the scope of the Protocol only if they contain LMOs that are capable of transferring or replicating genetic material. The cornerstone of the Protocol is a requirement that exporters seek consent from importers before the first shipment of LMOs intended for release into the environment.

Have GM products on the international market passed a safety assessment?

The GM products that are currently on the international market have all passed safety assessments conducted by national authorities. These different assessments in general follow the same basic principles, including an assessment of environmental and human health risk. The food safety assessment is usually based on Codex documents.

Why has there been concern about GM foods among some politicians, public interest groups and consumers?

Since the first introduction on the market in the mid-1990s of a major GM food (herbicide-resistant soybeans), there has been concern about such food among politicians, activists and consumers, especially in Europe. Several factors are involved. In the late 1980s – early 1990s, the results of decades of molecular research reached the public domain. Until that time, consumers were generally not very aware of the potential of this research. In the case of food, consumers started to wonder about safety because they perceive that modern biotechnology is leading to the creation of new species.

Consumers frequently ask, “what is in it for me?”. Where medicines are concerned, many consumers more readily accept biotechnology as beneficial for their health (e.g. vaccines, medicines with improved treatment potential or increased safety). In the case of the first GM foods introduced onto the European market, the products were of no apparent direct benefit to consumers (not significantly cheaper, no increased shelflife, no better taste). The potential for GM seeds to result in bigger yields per cultivated area should lead to lower prices. However, public attention has focused on the risk side of the risk-benefit equation, often without distinguishing between potential environmental impacts and public health effects of GMOs.

Consumer confidence in the safety of food supplies in Europe has decreased significantly as a result of a number of food scares that took place in the second half of the 1990s that are unrelated to GM foods. This has also had an impact on discussions about the acceptability of GM foods. Consumers have questioned the validity of risk assessments, both with regard to consumer health and environmental risks, focusing in particular on long-term effects. Other topics debated by consumer organizations have included allergenicity and antimicrobial resistance. Consumer concerns have triggered a discussion on the desirability of labelling GM foods, allowing for an informed choice of consumers.

What is the state of public debate on GMOs?

The release of GMOs into the environment and the marketing of GM foods have resulted in a public debate in many parts of the world. This debate is likely to continue, probably in the broader context of other uses of biotechnology (e.g. in human medicine) and their consequences for human societies. Even though the issues under debate are usually very similar (costs and benefits, safety issues), the outcome of the debate differs from country to country. On issues such as labelling and traceability of GM foods as a way to address consumer preferences, there is no worldwide consensus to date. Despite the lack of consensus on these topics, the Codex Alimentarius Commission has made significant progress and developed Codex texts relevant to labelling of foods derived from modern biotechnology in 2011 to ensure consistency on any approach on labelling implemented by Codex members with already adopted Codex provisions.

Are people’s reactions related to the different attitudes to food in various regions of the world?

Depending on the region of the world, people often have different attitudes to food. In addition to nutritional value, food often has societal and historical connotations, and in some instances may have religious importance. Technological modification of food and food production may evoke a negative response among consumers, especially in the absence of sound risk communication on risk assessment efforts and cost/benefit evaluations.

Are there implications for the rights of farmers to own their crops?

Yes, intellectual property rights are likely to be an element in the debate on GM foods, with an impact on the rights of farmers. In the FAO/WHO expert consultation in 2003, WHO and FAO have considered potential problems of the technological divide and the unbalanced distribution of benefits and risks between developed and developing countries and the problem often becomes even more acute through the existence of intellectual property rights and patenting that places an advantage on the strongholds of scientific and technological expertise. Such considerations are likely to also affect the debate on GM foods.

Why are certain groups concerned about the growing influence of the chemical industry on agriculture?

Certain groups are concerned about what they consider to be an undesirable level of control of seed markets by a few chemical companies. Sustainable agriculture and biodiversity benefit most from the use of a rich variety of crops, both in terms of good crop protection practices as well as from the perspective of society at large and the values attached to food. These groups fear that as a result of the interest of the chemical industry in seed markets, the range of varieties used by farmers may be reduced mainly to GM crops. This would impact on the food basket of a society as well as in the long run on crop protection (for example, with the development of resistance against insect pests and tolerance of certain herbicides). The exclusive use of herbicide-tolerant GM crops would also make the farmer dependent on these chemicals. These groups fear a dominant position of the chemical industry in agricultural development, a trend which they do not consider to be sustainable.

What further developments can be expected in the area of GMOs?

Future GM organisms are likely to include plants with improved resistance against plant disease or drought, crops with increased nutrient levels, fish species with enhanced growth characteristics. For non-food use, they may include plants or animals producing pharmaceutically important proteins such as new vaccines.

What has WHO been doing to improve the evaluation of GM foods?

WHO has been taking an active role in relation to GM foods, primarily for two reasons:

on the grounds that public health could benefit from the potential of biotechnology, for example, from an increase in the nutrient content of foods, decreased allergenicity and more efficient and/or sustainable food production; and

based on the need to examine the potential negative effects on human health of the consumption of food produced through genetic modification in order to protect public health. Modern technologies should be thoroughly evaluated if they are to constitute a true improvement in the way food is produced.

WHO, together with FAO, has convened several expert consultations on the evaluation of GM foods and provided technical advice for the Codex Alimentarius Commission which was fed into the Codex Guidelines on safety assessment of GM foods. WHO will keep paying due attention to the safety of GM foods from the view of public health protection, in close collaboration with FAO and other international bodies.

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What to Know About GMOs

September 29, 2021 | Guest Author

Five Questions with Biotech Policy Expert Jennifer Kuzma

by: Nash Dunn

During the past 30 years, the acronym “GMO” has reached the mainstream. You’re likely to hear it in conversation, advertising and, these days, the marketplace.

But what exactly are genetically modified organisms? How are they developed and regulated? How can they be improved and advanced, safely?

These aren’t just questions for biologists and engineers. NC State is home to social scientists and humanists who explore governance, communication, and ethical, historical and societal implications of emerging biotechnologies. Professor Jennifer Kuzma is a leader in this area.

The Goodnight-NCGSK Foundation Distinguished Professor in the School of Public and International Affairs, Kuzma is the co-founder and co-director of NC State’s Genetic Engineering and Society Center.

During the past two decades, she’s contributed more than 150 scholarly publications in the realm of biotechnology regulation and has held positions on numerous national and international committees. In 2018, the American Association for the Advancement of Science named Kuzma an honorary fellow, one of several distinctions she’s earned in her career.

Jennifer KuzmaWe asked Kuzma to share some of her insights with our readers. Here, she answers five essential questions about these increasingly prevalent technologies and products.

What are genetically modified foods? Or GMOs?

Genetically modified organisms (GMOs) are animals, plants or microorganisms that have been modified using modern biotechnology techniques.

Genetically modified foods (GM foods) are foods derived from GMOs.

GMOs and GM foods can contain foreign genes, or in other words, genes coming from an unrelated species. If the gene you are engineering into a host species comes from an unrelated species, scientists use the term transgenic. If the engineered genes come from related species, scientists use the term cisgenic.

Gene editing is a subset of biotechnology that uses enzymes to cut the genome in a very specific location, in order to change a gene in some way.

For example, analogous to changing a letter in a word, biotechnologists can use enzymes that cut at a specific location and rely on the cell’s own repair system to form a small mutation. To make larger changes, scientists can also introduce an engineered DNA template, and cells will copy that sequence into the site for more substantial genetic “edits” (analogous to introducing a new word or sentence in a paragraph).

CRISPR-Cas9 is a new type of gene editing that makes it easier to introduce small or larger genetic changes into a particular gene in a crop. After the edit is made, the foreign genes can be removed from the plant or animal through standard breeding so that only the edited gene will remain. Thus, not all GMOs contain foreign genes.

What GM foods can be found on the market?

In the first decades of agricultural biotechnology (1990-2010), GM foods mainly involved large commodity crops like soybeans, corn and cotton. The two traits engineered into these crops were typically genes involved in pest resistance or herbicide tolerance.

For example, most pest-resistant GM crops contained genes from the bacterium Bacillus thuringiensis, also known as “Bt.” These genes express proteins that poke holes in insects’ guts and kill them. In other words, the pesticide is built into Bt crops through genetic engineering and therefore, under some conditions, farmers can spray fewer chemical pesticides. Most of these GM crops went to animal feed, cotton, corn and soybean oil or corn or soybean meal.

Today, some whole sweet corn with Bt or herbicide-tolerant genes is on the market for human consumption, as are some viral-resistant papaya and squash. Also on the market is the Arctic Apple, a GM apple that resists browning.

Most pest resistant GM crops contained genes from the bacterium Bacillus thuringiensis, also known as “Bt.”

Only a few GM animals have been approved for human consumption by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) — the AquAdvantage salmon that contains a growth hormone for faster growth and a GM GalSafe pig for lower allergenicity and reduced tissue rejection for transplantation.

Scientists mark the advent of gene editing as the second generation of GMOs. Several gene-edited crops have been reviewed by the U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) for agricultural planting. The only gene-edited crop reviewed for human consumption by the FDA is a high oleic acid soybean, which has a healthier profile of oil and better food processing characteristics. It’s on the market now.

How can I find info about GM crops in the food supply?

In general, it’s difficult for consumers to find out what GM foods are on the market because they aren’t currently labeled in the U.S. Also, different federal agencies regulate GM crops, and there’s not a one-stop shop for finding information about what’s been approved. And even if a GM crop is approved through regulation, it might not be on the market yet.

Community-Led Governance For Gene-Edited Crops

In a recent paper in Science magazine, Kuzma and scholar Khara Grieger call for a public-friendly repository of GM and gene-edited crops — so consumers can know the general types and uses in the marketplace.

Starting in 2022, GM crops with foreign DNA will require labeling in the U.S. to comply with the new National Bioengineered Foods Disclosure Law and Standards. However, the new law excludes GM foods that are cisgenic, or those that don’t contain foreign DNA (like oils derived from transgenic GM crops). Furthermore, the labels will use the term “bioengineered” instead of GM, which might be less familiar to consumers. Biotech policy expert Greg Jaffe and I critiqued these and other requirements in a recent article, asking whether it might cause greater confusion among consumers.

If they choose to, consumers can avoid GM and gene-edited foods by purchasing USDA certified organic foods. Some organizations have also instituted “non-GM” labels like the non-GMO project seal.

Are GM foods safe?

As a broad category, GM foods are neither “safe” or “unsafe,” and the scientific consensus is they need to be reviewed on a case by case basis. We can say, however, that current GM foods on the market have not exhibited increased toxicity or allergenicity and have been screened for equivalent nutritional content.

GM foods on the market have been reviewed through the FDA’s voluntary consultation process. So far, there have been no observed adverse health effects from humans consuming GM foods. It is possible that in the future some GM foods would be developed with changed nutritional makeup or increased toxicity or allergenicity.

What is NC State doing to address genetic engineering and GMOs?

NC State’s Genetic Engineering and Society Center has become an international leader in research, scholarship, education and engagement on the societal implications of genetic engineering and emerging biotechnologies.

The GES center has more than 50 affiliated faculty, houses a graduate minor and several academic courses, and works with nonprofit, governmental, academic and industry partners on projects to consider the broader societal context, science, technology and safety of GMOs.

Genetic Engineering and Society Center

Explore NC State’s international hub of interdisciplinary research, engaged scholarship and inclusive dialogues surrounding opportunities and challenges associated with genetic engineering and society.

In addition to the center, NC State sponsors a Genetic Engineering and Society faculty cluster through the Chancellor’s Faculty Excellence Program. This interdisciplinary group of scholars helps hire top faculty and researches cultural, policy and economic aspects of GMOs.

All of this work helps ensure the safe, responsible and equitable development of emerging biotechnologies. This is an increasingly important task, one needed to realize potential benefits to sustainability, ensuring an adequate food supply, reducing illness and disease, and conserving our biodiversity.

This article was originally published in the Fall 2021 issue of the CHASS digital magazine, Accolades at https://chass.ncsu.edu/news/2021/09/29/what-to-know-about-gmos/

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Many people wonder what impacts GMO crops have on our world. “GMO” (genetically modified organism) is the common term consumers and popular media use to describe a plant, animal, or microorganism that has had its genetic material (DNA) changed using technology that generally involves the specific modification of DNA, including the transfer of specific DNA from one organism to another. Scientists often refer to this process as genetic engineering. Since the first genetically engineered crops, or GMOs, for sale to consumers were planted in the 1990s, researchers have tracked their impacts on and off the farm.

Why do farmers use GMO crops?

Most of the GMO crops grown today were developed to help farmers prevent crop loss. The three most common traits found in GMO crops are:

Resistance to insect damage

Tolerance to herbicides

Resistance to plant viruses

For GMO crops that are resistant to insect damage, farmers can apply fewer spray pesticides to protect the crops. GMO crops that are tolerant to herbicides help farmers control weeds without damaging the crops. When farmers use these herbicide-tolerant crops they do not need to till the soil, which they normally do to get rid of weeds. This no-till planting helps to maintain soil health and lower fuel and labor use. Taken together, studies have shown positive economic and environmental impacts.

The GMO papaya, called the Rainbow papaya, is an example of a GMO crop developed to be resistant to a virus. When the ringspot virus threatened the Hawaii papaya industry and the livelihoods of Hawaiian papaya farmers, plant scientists developed the ringspot virus-resistant Rainbow papaya. The Rainbow papaya was commercially planted in 1998, and today it is grown all over Hawaii and exported to Japan.

Learn more on Why Do Farmers in the U.S. Grow GMO Crops?

Do GMOs have impacts beyond the farm?

The most common GMO crops were developed to address the needs of farmers, but in turn they can help foods become more accessible and affordable for consumers. Some GMO crops were developed specifically to benefit consumers. For example, a GMO soybean that is used to create a healthier oil is commercially grown and available. GMO apples that do not brown when cut are now available for sale and may help reduce food waste. Plant scientists continue to develop GMO crops that they hope will benefit consumers.

Learn more about GMOs and the Environment.

Do GMOs have impacts outside the United States?

GMOs also impact the lives of farmers in other parts of the world. The U.S. Agency for International Development (USAID) is working with partner countries to use genetic engineering to improve staple crops, the basic foods that make up a large portion of people’s diets. For example, a GMO eggplant developed to be insect resistant has been slowly released to farmers in Bangladesh since 2014. Farmers who grow GMO eggplants are earning more and have less exposure to pesticides. USAID is also working with partner countries in Africa and elsewhere on several staple crops, such as virus-resistant cassava, insect-resistant cowpea, and blight-resistant potato.

Learn more about GMO Crops and Humanitarian Reasons for Development and GMOs Outside the U.S.

How GMOs Are Regulated in the United States

Science and History of GMOs and Other Food Modification Processes

GMO Crops, Animal Food, and Beyond

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Genetically Modified Organism (GMO)

updated: March 6, 2024

Definition

GMO (short for “genetically modified organism”) is a plant, animal or microbe in which one or more changes have been made to the genome, typically using high-tech genetic engineering, in an attempt to alter the characteristics of an organism. Genes can be introduced, enhanced or deleted within a species, across species or even across kingdoms. GMOs may be used for a variety of purposes, such as making human insulin, producing fermented beverages and developing pesticide resistance in crop plants.

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GMO, genetically modified organism. Genetic modifications are critical in the laboratory for understanding biological function and disease.

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Genetically Modified Organisms (GMOs) | Learn Science at Scitable

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Genetically Modified Organisms (GMOs): Transgenic Crops and Recombinant DNA Technology

Citation: Phillips, T. (2008) Genetically modified organisms (GMOs): Transgenic crops and recombinant DNA technology. Nature Education 1(1):213

If you could save lives by producing vaccines in transgenic bananas, would you? In the debate over large-scale commercialization and use of GMOs, where should we draw the line?

People have been altering the genomes of plants and animals for many years using traditional breeding techniques. Artificial selection for specific, desired traits has resulted in a variety of different organisms, ranging from sweet corn to hairless cats. But this artificial selection, in which organisms that exhibit specific traits are chosen to breed subsequent generations, has been limited to naturally occurring variations. In recent decades, however, advances in the field of genetic engineering have allowed for precise control over the genetic changes introduced into an organism. Today, we can incorporate new genes from one species into a completely unrelated species through genetic engineering, optimizing agricultural performance or facilitating the production of valuable pharmaceutical substances. Crop plants, farm animals, and soil bacteria are some of the more prominent examples of organisms that have been subject to genetic engineering. Current Use of Genetically Modified Organisms Figure 1Agricultural plants are one of the most frequently cited examples of genetically modified organisms (GMOs). Some benefits of genetic engineering in agriculture are increased crop yields, reduced costs for food or drug production, reduced need for pesticides, enhanced nutrient composition and food quality, resistance to pests and disease, greater food security, and medical benefits to the world's growing population. Advances have also been made in developing crops that mature faster and tolerate aluminum, boron, salt, drought, frost, and other environmental stressors, allowing plants to grow in conditions where they might not otherwise flourish (Table 1; Takeda & Matsuoka, 2008). Other applications include the production of nonprotein (bioplastic) or nonindustrial (ornamental plant) products. A number of animals have also been genetically engineered to increase yield and decrease susceptibility to disease. For example, salmon have been engineered to grow larger (Figure 1) and mature faster (Table 1), and cattle have been enhanced to exhibit resistance to mad cow disease (United States Department of Energy, 2007). Table 1: Examples of GMOs Resulting from Agricultural Biotechnology Genetically Conferred Trait Example Organism Genetic Change APPROVED COMMERCIAL PRODUCTS Herbicide tolerance Soybean Glyphosate herbicide (Roundup) tolerance conferred by expression of a glyphosate-tolerant form of the plant enzyme 5-enolpyruvylshikimate-3-phosphate synthase (EPSPS) isolated from the soil bacterium Agrobacterium tumefaciens, strain CP4 Insect resistance Corn Resistance to insect pests, specifically the European corn borer, through expression of the insecticidal protein Cry1Ab from Bacillus thuringiensis Altered fatty acid composition Canola High laurate levels achieved by inserting the gene for ACP thioesterase from the California bay tree Umbellularia californica Virus resistance Plum Resistance to plum pox virus conferred by insertion of a coat protein (CP) gene from the virus PRODUCTS STILL IN DEVELOPMENT Vitamin enrichment Rice Three genes for the manufacture of beta-carotene, a precursor to vitamin A, in the endosperm of the rice prevent its removal (from husks) during milling Vaccines Tobacco Hepatitis B virus surface antigen (HBsAg) produced in transgenic tobacco induces immune response when injected into mice Oral vaccines Maize Fusion protein (F) from Newcastle disease virus (NDV) expressed in corn seeds induces an immune response when fed to chickens Faster maturation Coho salmon A type 1 growth hormone gene injected into fertilized fish eggs results in 6.2% retention of the vector at one year of age, as well as significantly increased growth rates The pharmaceutical industry is another frontier for the use of GMOs. In 1986, human growth hormone was the first protein pharmaceutical made in plants (Barta et al., 1986), and in 1989, the first antibody was produced (Hiatt et al., 1989). Both research groups used tobacco, which has since dominated the industry as the most intensively studied and utilized plant species for the expression of foreign genes (Ma et al., 2003). As of 2003, several types of antibodies produced in plants had made it to clinical trials. The use of genetically modified animals has also been indispensible in medical research. Transgenic animals are routinely bred to carry human genes, or mutations in specific genes, thus allowing the study of the progression and genetic determinants of various diseases. Potential GMO Applications Many industries stand to benefit from additional GMO research. For instance, a number of microorganisms are being considered as future clean fuel producers and biodegraders. In addition, genetically modified plants may someday be used to produce recombinant vaccines. In fact, the concept of an oral vaccine expressed in plants (fruits and vegetables) for direct consumption by individuals is being examined as a possible solution to the spread of disease in underdeveloped countries, one that would greatly reduce the costs associated with conducting large-scale vaccination campaigns. Work is currently underway to develop plant-derived vaccine candidates in potatoes and lettuce for hepatitis B virus (HBV), enterotoxigenic Escherichia coli (ETEC), and Norwalk virus. Scientists are also looking into the production of other commercially valuable proteins in plants, such as spider silk protein and polymers that are used in surgery or tissue replacement (Ma et al., 2003). Genetically modified animals have even been used to grow transplant tissues and human transplant organs, a concept called xenotransplantation. The rich variety of uses for GMOs provides a number of valuable benefits to humans, but many people also worry about potential risks. Risks and Controversies Surrounding the Use of GMOs Despite the fact that the genes being transferred occur naturally in other species, there are unknown consequences to altering the natural state of an organism through foreign gene expression. After all, such alterations can change the organism's metabolism, growth rate, and/or response to external environmental factors. These consequences influence not only the GMO itself, but also the natural environment in which that organism is allowed to proliferate. Potential health risks to humans include the possibility of exposure to new allergens in genetically modified foods, as well as the transfer of antibiotic-resistant genes to gut flora. Horizontal gene transfer of pesticide, herbicide, or antibiotic resistance to other organisms would not only put humans at risk, but it would also cause ecological imbalances, allowing previously innocuous plants to grow uncontrolled, thus promoting the spread of disease among both plants and animals. Although the possibility of horizontal gene transfer between GMOs and other organisms cannot be denied, in reality, this risk is considered to be quite low. Horizontal gene transfer occurs naturally at a very low rate and, in most cases, cannot be simulated in an optimized laboratory environment without active modification of the target genome to increase susceptibility (Ma et al., 2003). In contrast, the alarming consequences of vertical gene transfer between GMOs and their wild-type counterparts have been highlighted by studying transgenic fish released into wild populations of the same species (Muir & Howard, 1999). The enhanced mating advantages of the genetically modified fish led to a reduction in the viability of their offspring. Thus, when a new transgene is introduced into a wild fish population, it propagates and may eventually threaten the viability of both the wild-type and the genetically modified organisms. Unintended Impacts on Other Species: The Bt Corn Controversy One example of public debate over the use of a genetically modified plant involves the case of Bt corn. Bt corn expresses a protein from the bacterium Bacillus thuringiensis. Prior to construction of the recombinant corn, the protein had long been known to be toxic to a number of pestiferous insects, including the monarch caterpillar, and it had been successfully used as an environmentally friendly insecticide for several years. The benefit of the expression of this protein by corn plants is a reduction in the amount of insecticide that farmers must apply to their crops. Unfortunately, seeds containing genes for recombinant proteins can cause unintentional spread of recombinant genes or exposure of non-target organisms to new toxic compounds in the environment. The now-famous Bt corn controversy started with a laboratory study by Losey et al. (1999) in which the mortality of monarch larvae was reportedly higher when fed with milkweed (their natural food supply) covered in pollen from transgenic corn than when fed milkweed covered with pollen from regular corn. The report by Losey et al. was followed by another publication (Jesse & Obrycki, 2000) suggesting that natural levels of Bt corn pollen in the field were harmful to monarchs. Debate ensued when scientists from other laboratories disputed the study, citing the extremely high concentration of pollen used in the laboratory study as unrealistic, and concluding that migratory patterns of monarchs do not place them in the vicinity of corn during the time it sheds pollen. For the next two years, six teams of researchers from government, academia, and industry investigated the issue and concluded that the risk of Bt corn to monarchs was "very low" (Sears et al., 2001), providing the basis for the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency to approve Bt corn for an additional seven years. Unintended Economic Consequences Another concern associated with GMOs is that private companies will claim ownership of the organisms they create and not share them at a reasonable cost with the public. If these claims are correct, it is argued that use of genetically modified crops will hurt the economy and environment, because monoculture practices by large-scale farm production centers (who can afford the costly seeds) will dominate over the diversity contributed by small farmers who can't afford the technology. However, a recent meta-analysis of 15 studies reveals that, on average, two-thirds of the benefits of first-generation genetically modified crops are shared downstream, whereas only one-third accrues upstream (Demont et al., 2007). These benefit shares are exhibited in both industrial and developing countries. Therefore, the argument that private companies will not share ownership of GMOs is not supported by evidence from first-generation genetically modified crops. GMOs and the General Public: Philosophical and Religious Concerns In a 2007 survey of 1,000 American adults conducted by the International Food Information Council (IFIC), 33% of respondents believed that biotech food products would benefit them or their families, but 23% of respondents did not know biotech foods had already reached the market. In addition, only 5% of those polled said they would take action by altering their purchasing habits as a result of concerns associated with using biotech products. According to the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, public acceptance trends in Europe and Asia are mixed depending on the country and current mood at the time of the survey (Hoban, 2004). Attitudes toward cloning, biotechnology, and genetically modified products differ depending upon people's level of education and interpretations of what each of these terms mean. Support varies for different types of biotechnology; however, it is consistently lower when animals are mentioned. Furthermore, even if the technologies are shared fairly, there are people who would still resist consumable GMOs, even with thorough testing for safety, because of personal or religious beliefs. The ethical issues surrounding GMOs include debate over our right to "play God," as well as the introduction of foreign material into foods that are abstained from for religious reasons. Some people believe that tampering with nature is intrinsically wrong, and others maintain that inserting plant genes in animals, or vice versa, is immoral. When it comes to genetically modified foods, those who feel strongly that the development of GMOs is against nature or religion have called for clear labeling rules so they can make informed selections when choosing which items to purchase. Respect for consumer choice and assumed risk is as important as having safeguards to prevent mixing of genetically modified products with non-genetically modified foods. In order to determine the requirements for such safeguards, there must be a definitive assessment of what constitutes a GMO and universal agreement on how products should be labeled. These issues are increasingly important to consider as the number of GMOs continues to increase due to improved laboratory techniques and tools for sequencing whole genomes, better processes for cloning and transferring genes, and improved understanding of gene expression systems. Thus, legislative practices that regulate this research have to keep pace. Prior to permitting commercial use of GMOs, governments perform risk assessments to determine the possible consequences of their use, but difficulties in estimating the impact of commercial GMO use makes regulation of these organisms a challenge. History of International Regulations for GMO Research and Development In 1971, the first debate over the risks to humans of exposure to GMOs began when a common intestinal microorganism, E. coli, was infected with DNA from a tumor-inducing virus (Devos et al., 2007). Initially, safety issues were a concern to individuals working in laboratories with GMOs, as well as nearby residents. However, later debate arose over concerns that recombinant organisms might be used as weapons. The growing debate, initially restricted to scientists, eventually spread to the public, and in 1974, the National Institutes of Health (NIH) established the Recombinant DNA Advisory Committee to begin to address some of these issues. In the 1980s, when deliberate releases of GMOs to the environment were beginning to occur, the U.S. had very few regulations in place. Adherence to the guidelines provided by the NIH was voluntary for industry. Also during the 1980s, the use of transgenic plants was becoming a valuable endeavor for production of new pharmaceuticals, and individual companies, institutions, and whole countries were beginning to view biotechnology as a lucrative means of making money (Devos et al., 2007). Worldwide commercialization of biotech products sparked new debate over the patentability of living organisms, the adverse effects of exposure to recombinant proteins, confidentiality issues, the morality and credibility of scientists, the role of government in regulating science, and other issues. In the U.S., the Congressional Office of Technology Assessment initiatives were developed, and they were eventually adopted worldwide as a top-down approach to advising policymakers by forecasting the societal impacts of GMOs. Then, in 1986, a publication by the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD), called "Recombinant DNA Safety Considerations," became the first intergovernmental document to address issues surrounding the use of GMOs. This document recommended that risk assessments be performed on a case-by-case basis. Since then, the case-by-case approach to risk assessment for genetically modified products has been widely accepted; however, the U.S. has generally taken a product-based approach to assessment, whereas the European approach is more process based (Devos et al., 2007). Although in the past, thorough regulation was lacking in many countries, governments worldwide are now meeting the demands of the public and implementing stricter testing and labeling requirements for genetically modified crops. Increased Research and Improved Safety Go Hand in Hand Proponents of the use of GMOs believe that, with adequate research, these organisms can be safely commercialized. There are many experimental variations for expression and control of engineered genes that can be applied to minimize potential risks. Some of these practices are already necessary as a result of new legislation, such as avoiding superfluous DNA transfer (vector sequences) and replacing selectable marker genes commonly used in the lab (antibiotic resistance) with innocuous plant-derived markers (Ma et al., 2003). Issues such as the risk of vaccine-expressing plants being mixed in with normal foodstuffs might be overcome by having built-in identification factors, such as pigmentation, that facilitate monitoring and separation of genetically modified products from non-GMOs. Other built-in control techniques include having inducible promoters (e.g., induced by stress, chemicals, etc.), geographic isolation, using male-sterile plants, and separate growing seasons. GMOs benefit mankind when used for purposes such as increasing the availability and quality of food and medical care, and contributing to a cleaner environment. If used wisely, they could result in an improved economy without doing more harm than good, and they could also make the most of their potential to alleviate hunger and disease worldwide. However, the full potential of GMOs cannot be realized without due diligence and thorough attention to the risks associated with each new GMO on a case-by-case basis. References and Recommended Reading Barta, A., et al. The expression of a nopaline synthase-human growth hormone chimaeric gene in transformed tobacco and sunflower callus tissue. Plant Molecular Biology 6, 347–357 (1986) Beyer, P., et al. Golden rice: Introducing the β-carotene biosynthesis pathway into rice endosperm by genetic engineering to defeat vitamin A deficiency. Journal of Nutrition 132, 506S–510S (2002) Demont, M., et al. GM crops in Europe: How much value and for whom? EuroChoices 6, 46–53 (2007) Devlin, R., et al. Extraordinary salmon growth. Nature 371, 209–210 (1994) (link to article) Devos, Y., et al. Ethics in the societal debate on genetically modified organisms: A (re)quest for sense and sensibility. Journal of Agricultural and Environmental Ethics 21, 29–61 (2007) doi:10.1007/s10806-007-9057-6 Guerrero-Andrade, O., et al. Expression of the Newcastle disease virus fusion protein in transgenic maize and immunological studies. Transgenic Research 15, 455–463(2006) doi:10.1007/s11248-006-0017-0 Hiatt, A., et al. Production of antibodies in transgenic plants. Nature 342, 76–79 (1989) (link to article) Hoban, T. Public attitudes towards agricultural biotechnology. ESA working papers nos. 4-9. Agricultural and Development Economics Division, Food and Agricultural Organization of the United Nations (2004) Jesse, H., & Obrycki, J. Field deposition of Bt transgenic corn pollen: Lethal effects on the monarch butterfly. Oecologia 125, 241–248 (2000) Losey, J., et al. Transgenic pollen harms monarch larvae. Nature 399, 214 (1999) doi:10.1038/20338 (link to article) Ma, J., et al. The production of recombinant pharmaceutical proteins in plants. Nature Reviews Genetics 4, 794–805 (2003) doi:10.1038/nrg1177 (link to article) Muir, W., & Howard, R. Possible ecological risks of transgenic organism release when transgenes affect mating success: Sexual selection and the Trojan gene hypothesis. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 96, 13853–13856 (1999) Sears, M., et al. Impact of Bt corn on monarch butterfly populations: A risk assessment. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 98, 11937–11942 (2001) Spurgeon, D. Call for tighter controls on transgenic foods. Nature 409, 749 (2001) (link to article) Takeda, S., & Matsuoka, M. Genetic approaches to crop improvement: Responding to environmental and population changes. Nature Reviews Genetics 9, 444–457 (2008) doi:10.1038/nrg2342 (link to article) United States Department of Energy, Office of Biological and Environmental Research, Human Genome Program. Human Genome Project information: Genetically modified foods and organisms, (2007)

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Applications in Biotechnology

Genetically Modified Organisms (GMOs): Transgenic Crops and Recombinant DNA Technology

Recombinant DNA Technology and Transgenic Animals

Restriction Enzymes

The Biotechnology Revolution: PCR and the Use of Reverse Transcriptase to Clone Expressed Genes

DNA Replication

DNA Damage & Repair: Mechanisms for Maintaining DNA Integrity

DNA Replication and Causes of Mutation

Genetic Mutation

Major Molecular Events of DNA Replication

Semi-Conservative DNA Replication: Meselson and Stahl

Jumping Genes

Barbara McClintock and the Discovery of Jumping Genes (Transposons)

Functions and Utility of Alu Jumping Genes

Transposons, or Jumping Genes: Not Junk DNA?

Transposons: The Jumping Genes

Transcription & Translation

DNA Transcription

RNA Transcription by RNA Polymerase: Prokaryotes vs Eukaryotes

Translation: DNA to mRNA to Protein

What is a Gene? Colinearity and Transcription Units

Discovery of Genetic Material

Barbara McClintock and the Discovery of Jumping Genes (Transposons)

Discovery of DNA as the Hereditary Material using Streptococcus pneumoniae

Discovery of DNA Structure and Function: Watson and Crick

Isolating Hereditary Material: Frederick Griffith, Oswald Avery, Alfred Hershey, and Martha Chase

Gene Copies

Copy Number Variation

Copy Number Variation and Genetic Disease

Copy Number Variation and Human Disease

DNA Deletion and Duplication and the Associated Genetic Disorders

Tandem Repeats and Morphological Variation

RNA

Chemical Structure of RNA

Eukaryotic Genome Complexity

Genome Packaging in Prokaryotes: the Circular Chromosome of E. coli

RNA Functions

RNA Splicing: Introns, Exons and Spliceosome

RNA Transcription by RNA Polymerase: Prokaryotes vs Eukaryotes

What is a Gene? Colinearity and Transcription Units

Topic rooms within Nucleic Acid Structure and Function

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Lead Editor:

Bob Moss

Nucleic Acid Structure and Function

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Within this Subject (34)

Applications in Biotechnology (4)

Discovery of Genetic Material (4)

DNA Replication (6)

Gene Copies (5)

Jumping Genes (4)

RNA (7)

Transcription & Translation (4)

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Genetically modified organism - Medicine, Research, Biotechnology | Britannica

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bitpiecom官网下载正版|gmo

bitpiecom官网下载正版|gmo

GMOs_百度百科

Genetically modified organism (GMO) | Definition, Examples, & Facts | Britannica

Genetically Modified Organisms

转基因生物 - 知乎

Food, genetically modified

What to Know About GMOs | Genetic Engineering and Society Center

How GMO Crops Impact Our World | FDA

Genetically Modified Organism (GMO)

Genetically Modified Organisms (GMOs) | Learn Science at Scitable

Genetically modified organism - Medicine, Research, Biotechnology | Britannica

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bitpiecom官网下载正版|gmo

bitpiecom官网下载正版|gmo

GMOs_百度百科

Genetically modified organism (GMO) | Definition, Examples, & Facts | Britannica

Genetically Modified Organisms

转基因生物 - 知乎

Food, genetically modified

What to Know About GMOs | Genetic Engineering and Society Center

How GMO Crops Impact Our World | FDA

Genetically Modified Organism (GMO)

Genetically Modified Organisms (GMOs) | Learn Science at Scitable

Genetically modified organism - Medicine, Research, Biotechnology | Britannica

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